English Isu Comparison Essay Essay

When writing literary works most, authors will agree that it is difficult to write a story without any inspiration. The writers will often have some motive, either from past experiences or something that can inspire an idea for a novel. Although the novel can be fictitious it can still change how society feels about a certain issue. The two novels All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque and Slaughterhouse 5 by Kurt Vonnegut romanticizes what war is like, emphasizing ideas such as glory, horror, honor, patriotic duty, and adventure. The similarities include both authors have their impression that the absurdity of war is morally wrong, how soldiers act as toys in the sandbox being played with higher authorities. Both novels feature the society of young men to be controlled and sent to their demise with little hope. The differences between the two novels is that both novels feature a different approach on how the novel flows. Vonnegut moves the story in humorous manner whereas Remarque tells it in a serious manner. The obvious comparison when exploring the two novels is the aspect that they are antiwar novels. In Slaughterhouse 5, Vonnegut is trying to express his point of view, or sway the readers to understand the negative properties of war since the firebombing of the German town Dresden during World War II. The protagonist Billy Pilgrim is the antiwar hero because he does not fit the description of the usual war hero. â€Å"He didn’t look like a soldier at all. He looked like a filthy flamingo† (Vonnegut, 33) Billy’s character is a customary figure of fun in the American Army. Billy is no exception. He is powerless to harm the enemy or to help his friends. He wears no medals, his physical appearance and build is a mockery and his faith in loving Jesus troubles most soldiers. (Lichtenstein) Vonnegut realizes that war is inevitable, it’s like death. Even if Billy were to train hard, wear the proper uniform, and be a good soldier he might still die like the rest of the others in Dresden. Billy lives in a life with indignity and is not afraid of death, and in accordance to the Traflamadorian philosophy of accepting death. By uttering the phrase â€Å"so it goes† the narrator points out the meaningless slaughter after every death, no matter how ironic, sarcastic or random. â€Å"On the eighth day, the hobo died. So it goes. His last words were, â€Å"You think this is bad? This ain’t bad. †Ã¢â‚¬  (Vonnegut 79) â€Å"But the candles and soap were made from the fat of rendered Jews and Gypsies and fairies and communist and other enemies of the state. So it goes† (Vonnegut, 96) Billy always sees death coming, but nothing he can do about it. In chapter 10, at the end of novel Vonnegut shows the reader how there is nothing intelligent to say after the massacre of Dresden, â€Å"Billy and the rest wandered out onto the shady street. The trees were leafing out. There was nothing going on out there, no traffic of any kind. There was only one vehicle, an abandoned wagon drawn by two horses. The wagon was green and coffin-shaped. Birds were talking. One bird said to Billy Pilgrim, â€Å"Poo-tee-weet? † (Vonnegut, 215) It is obvious when everyone is dead it is suppose to be quiet, but the bird who says â€Å"Poot-tee-weet? † symbolizes the lack of anything intelligent to say about war. It is the only appropriate thing to say, since no words can describe the horror on the firebombing of Dresden. Erich Maria Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front presents its reader with the harsh reality of war. The novel sets out to portray war and the actual experiences, replacing the romantic picture of glory and heroism with a decidedly unromantic vision of terror, vanity, and slaughter. The novel takes place during World War I and in the perspective of a German soldier, Paul Baumer the protagonist. Stylistically the novel consists of short chapters that symbolize the quick pace of death in the novel. For example in chapter one Remarque already introduces the pain and agony of loss in friendship. (Ward) For example in chapter one, Kimmerich being one of the four friends of Paul dies while being brought back from the trenches. (Remarque) Remarque smashes any positive thoughts the reader may have about warfare in his descriptions, â€Å"It is impossible to grasp the fact that there are human faces above these torn bodies, faces in which life goes on from day to day and on top of it all, this is just one single military hospital, just one – there are hundreds of thousands of them in Germany, France, and Russia. How pointless all human thoughts, words and deeds must be, if things like this are possible! Everything must have been fraudulent and pointless if thousands of years of civilization weren’t even able to prevent the river of blood. Only a military hospital can show you what war really is† (Remarque, 186) It seems that the impression of war is not honor or glory yet it is suffering of those who are participating. Because All Quiet on the Western Front is set among soldiers fighting on the front, one of its main focuses is the damaging effect that war has on the soldiers who fight it. How one’s thoughts on the war can ruin the past experiences with a harsh focus on the physical and mental damage done. The men in the novel are constantly subjective to physical danger. Literally the soldiers can be blown to pieces at any time. This threat causes damage done to the brain and triggering a mental picture, forcing soldiers to experience fear during every moment of their time on the front. â€Å"We became tough, suspicious, hard-hearted, vengeful and rough, if they had sent us out into the trenches without this kind of training he probably most of us would have gone mad† (Remarque, 19) Likewise in Slaughterhouse 5 Billy Pilgrim didn’t receive the proper training that driven him into the peak of insanity. And the only way to survive for both Billy and Paul is to disconnect themselves from their feelings, and accept the conditions of their life. â€Å"We want to live at any price; so we cannot burden ourselves with feelings which, though they may be ornamental enough in peacetime, would be out of place here. † (Remarque, 123) In Billy’s case he uses the illusion of time travel to escape his thoughts in the Slaughterhouse 5. Additionally to the similarities of both novels being antiwar novels, there is an idea that the authors highlight the generation of young men being drafted to the war. Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front gives emphasis on the particular affect war has on the young men who have not been given the chance to experience life. Paul’s character represents the young generation of men who went straight from childhood into World War I. Paul describes his fellow soldiers: he, Leer, Muller, and Kropp are all 19 years old. They are from the same school, same classes, and each enlisted into the army voluntary. (Remarque) â€Å"They are from one of the newly raise regiments, almost exclusively young men from the latest age group to be drafted. They’ve had hardly any training, nothing more than a bit of theory. † (Remarque, 93) The war changes Paul’s attitude about the world and about humanity. He believes the war becomes not merely a traumatic experience or a hardship to be endured but something that actually transforms the essence of human existence into endless suffering. (Ward) The longer that Paul survives the war, the more that he hates it, the less certain that life will be better for him after it ends. (Ward) The war teaches the generation of young men the effects of nationalism and political power. Tools used to control the nations population. Forcing them to believe in what is â€Å"right†. Throughout Paul’s experience he realizes that the soldiers that fight on the front are not fighting for the nation but fighting for their own survival, to kill or be killed. Additionally, Paul and his friends do not consider the opposing fraction to be their real enemies, â€Å"I didn’t want to kill you, mate. If you were to jump in here again, I wouldn’t do it†¦ But earlier on you were just an idea to me, a concept in my mind that called up an automatic response – it was that concept that I stabbed. It is only now that I can see that you are a human being like me. I just thought about your hand-grenades, your bayonet and your weapons – now I can see you wife, and your face, and what we have in common. Forgive me comrade, how can you be my enemy? If we threw these uniforms and weapons away you could be just as much my brother as Kat and Albert. † (Remarque, 158) In his view, the real enemies are the men in power in their own nation, who they believe have sacrifice them to the war simply to increase their own power and glory. At the end of the novel, almost every major character is dead, epitomizing the war’s devastating effect on the generation of young men who is force to fight in it. Slaughterhouse 5 also portrays an excellent example of young men going to war leaving back a life behind to glorify the nation’s well being. Billy Pilgrim is only 20 years old when he enters the war. During his post war life he attended night sessions at the Ilium School of Optometry. (Vonnegut) As he progresses throughout the events he encounters other soldiers who are similar in age. â€Å"Roland Weary was only eighteen, was at the end of an unhappy childhood† (Vonnegut, 35) â€Å"Two of the Germans were boys in their early teens† (Vonnegut, 52) The differences seen in the two novels is that Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front moves in a very serious and descriptive way. Unlike Vonneguts Slaughterhouse 5 Remarque illustrates every death with use of carnage and gore. Every battle scene features brutal violence and bloody descriptions of death, â€Å"We see men go on living with the top of their skulls missing; we see soldiers go on running when both their feet have been shot away—they stumble on their splintering a full half-mile on his hands, dragging his legs behind him, with both knees shattered. We see soldiers with their mouths missing, their lower jaws missing, with their faces missing; we find someone who has gripped the main artery in his arm between his teeth for two hours so that he doesn’t bleed to death. The sun goes down, night falls, the shells whistle, life comes to an end† (Remarque, 97) Hospital scenes portray men with serious wounds that go untreated because of insufficient medical supplies. Paul carries the wounded Kat on his back to safety, only to discover that Kat’s head was hit by a piece of shrapnel while Paul was carrying him. The descriptions of rat-infestation, starvation, weather conditions, and trench warfare, and how it forces the soldiers to live in these upset conditions. (Remarque) Remarque’s novel dramatizes aspects of World War I and how the evolution of technology (trenches, artillery, chlorine gas) was a major influence that made killing easier. â€Å"Continuous fire, defensive fire, curtain fire, trench mortars, gas, tanks, machine guns, hand-grenades – words, words, but they embrace all the horrors of the world. † (Remarque, 68) Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse 5 moves the story in a science fiction process filled with humour and irony. First of all the idea of Billy being â€Å"unstuck in time†, Billy travels randomly through the moments of his life without control over his chronological destination. (Lichtenstein) Time travel leads to instability in the novel, as Billy is trying to make sense in his life giving an experience that no one can understand how Billy really feels. He time travels in order to cope with his life and all he has been through. In chapter two, Vonnegut immediately tells the beginning, middle, and ending of the story right away. Vonnegut enchants the theme of novel by adding Tralfamadorians (Vonnegut’s humor of toilet-plunger shaped Aliens) and how they abducted Billy into their spaceship and teaching Billy the philosophy of time and death and discussing whether free will exist. (Vonnegut) Witty humour and irony is a factor in the course of the novel, for instance, â€Å"Weary socked Billy a good one on the side of his jaw, knocked Billy away from the bank and onto the snow covered ice of the creek. â€Å"You shouldn’t even be in the Army,† said Weary. Billy was making involuntarily making convulsive sounds that were a lot like laughter. â€Å"You think it’s funny, huh? † But then Weary saw that he had an audience. Five German soldiers and a police dog on a lash were looking down into the bed of the creek. The soldiers’ blue eyes filled with a bleary civilian curiosity as to why one American would try to murder another American, and why the victim should laugh† (Vonnegut, 51) Ironically, of the four original soldiers, Billy is the only one who remains alive, yet he is the most unlikely one to do so. In conclusion, in spite of the differences between Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front and Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse 5 both novels convey the same message Whether the readers view Slaughterhouse-Five as a science-fiction novel or a autobiographical statement, and All Quiet on the Western Front the reader cannot ignore the destructive properties of war, since the catastrophic firebombing of the German town of Dresden during World War II or the horrendous acts of World War I including trench warfare. Both novels suggest the same conclusion about war and how it ends â€Å"quiet†. By emphasizing the bird that whispered â€Å"Poot-tee-weet† towards Billy. Or the death of Paul Baumer’s â€Å"Nothing new to report on the western front† (Remarque, 207)

African Americans and Politics Essay

For decades African Americans have faced struggles throughout history. Most notably, African Americans were involved in slavery, suffrage, and the civil rights movement. These struggles were very visible and everyone was aware of what was going on. However, now African Americans are involved in a struggle that it not visible and recognizable. This is a struggle that is used to capitalize on wealth and prevent African American families and individuals from living normal lives. They are involved in environmental racism. Environmental racism â€Å"refers to intentional or unintentional racial discrimination in the enforcement of environmental rules and regulations, the intentional or unintentional targeting of minority communities for the siting of polluting industries, or the exclusion of minority groups from public and private boards, commissions, and regulatory bodies. †[1] This form of racism has been plaguing African American communities for years and most people have not taken notice. There are many form of environmental racism; however, this paper will specifically address redlining, blockbusting, racial profiling, and housing segregation and how each has impacted the African American community. Redlining is the act of refusing or increasing the cost of services such as loans, insurance, banking, and access to healthcare to citizens based upon race. The practice involves taking a map and drawing a red line through neighborhoods where banks would not invest money. Redlining was used to segregate African Americans in the housing, workforce, and school market. Parents had to find work in other areas of the city because there were not any resources available in the community. Because of redlining, schools became over crowded with 50 students crammed into one classroom. With the schools overcrowded, teachers were not able to provide special attention to the needy students and other students became uncontrollable. Cathy Cohen would argue that African Americans were being marginalized in the school system. To be considered marginalized means, to have continuously been denied access to dominant resources, barred from full participation in dominant institutions, and defined as â€Å"others, â€Å" living outside the norm and values agreed upon by society (Cohen 1999). African American students were all forced to go to one school in the community to keep them out of the White schools. Along with marginalization, Blacks were, and still are, a part of a power struggle. Blacks were seen, and will always be seen, as an inferior race. Also, Blacks have been disempowered knowingly and unknowingly. African-Americans have been taken advantage of and used to make other races feel superior. Blockbusting was a practice used by real estate agents and developers in the United States to encourage white property owners to sell their homes by giving the impression that minority groups (such as African Americans) were moving into their previously racially segregated neighborhood. [2] When African Americans began to move into the inner city, fear arose that they were an economic threat. Blockbusting was also the cause of many White Americans moving into the suburbs. The practice of blockbusting involved an African American purchasing a home for very cheap in a predominately White neighborhood. The real estate broker would contact the White residents and offer to buy their houses for quick cash and resell the house to an African American family for much higher. Real estate agents claimed that African Americans moving into a predominately White neighborhood would cause property values to go down and urged White homeowners to sell as soon as possible. Real estate agents indicated that the property values would go down because African Americans would not keep up their property, avoid lawn care, and if would affect the entire neighborhood. This practice has caused major shifts in urban neighborhoods, especially Chicago, in recent decades. The Blockbusting methods were profitable and became common across the nation. For example, by 1962, when blockbusting had been in practice for fifteen years, Chicago had over 100 operators and the city had been changing an average of two to three blocks a week for several years. Blockbusting is the reason why cities such as Chicago are now predominately African American and the surrounding suburbs are predominately White. Blockbusting caused African Americans to be marginalized as well. They were denied fair participation in the housing market. Real estate agents inflated housing prices for African Americans to gain commission. White homeowners already had prejudices about African Americans and the real estate agents only made the situation worse. The stereotypes that Black families do not take care of their property was the main reason White homeowners sold their homes. Racial profiling is â€Å"the inclusion of racial or ethnic characteristics in determining whether a person is considered likely to commit a particular type of crime or an illegal act or to behave in a â€Å"predictable† manner. †[3] The practice of racial profiling is a huge problem in the United States. African Americans are usually the targeted victims in the act of racial profiling. It is believed that an African American driver will be more likely stopped than a White driver. Some police officers share the belief that Black drivers will most likely possess an illegal substance of committing an illegal act. However, policemen argue that they do not base their arrests on race but are greatening their probability of a successful search. Some policemen also argue that the probability of catching a Black offender is greater than catching a White offender. Whether the statement is true or not, it places a bias on African Americans and White Americans. The belief that African Americans men are more likely to commit crimes is unfair and not true. One cannot base the behavior of all African American men on the ones that have done wrong and been imprisoned. Another belief of racial profiling is it is the cause of the racial disparities in the American prison system. There are many more African American men in the jail system than there are White men. The previous statement is mostly likely to be true. Because some policemen hold biases and have prejudices against African Americans, it will cause more African Americans to be placed in the jail system. Another instance of racial profiling involved African Americans owning nice material possessions such as a car or a house and African Americans being in a predominately White neighborhood. For example, in an episode of Family Matters, Eddie was in his car travelling through a predominately White neighborhood and was pulled over by the police for â€Å"failure to signal. † However, the routine traffic stop turned into nothing more than a beating for young Eddie. The significance of the episode shows that racial profiling does exist in the United States and it takes place every day. The practice has impacted African Americans because hundreds of innocent people have been harassed and humiliated by police officers simply because of their race. The most recent national example of environmental racism occurred when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in 2005. When New Orleans was flooded with tons of water, there were no relief efforts for days and almost a week. Many believed this was due to the fact that majority of the New Orleans population was African American. The population was basically ignored for days until the help decided to come. Citizens of New Orleans were faced with intentional racism and were denied help for several days. This has impacted African Americans because many people died because of the heat, starvation, and disease from the water. African-Americans have been marginalized for centuries. To be considered marginalized means, to have continuously been denied access to dominant resources, barred from full participation in dominant institutions, and defined as â€Å"others, â€Å" living outside the norm and values agreed upon by society (Cohen 1999). Most recently, African-Americans were marginalized in regards to the outbreak of HIV/AIDS. While HIV/AIDS was once considered to be the disease of white gay men, Blacks are now the center of the epidemic. With the turn of the new millennium, the outbreak of AIDS in the Black community has soared. Black men who consider themselves to be â€Å"down low† are the center of the rising epidemic. The men have intercourse with other men while continuing to have intercourse with their female partners thus spreading the AIDS virus. Even though the soaring rate is shocking, there has been limited response from the African-American community. One can argue that Blacks have been marginalized from the resources to treat the epidemic. However, the Black community seems to be ignoring the spreading AIDS virus and focusing more on electing a Black president and high blood pressure. While both electing a Black president and lowering high blood pressure are important issues, similar emphasis should be put on the rising AIDS epidemic. In a sense, African-Americans have marginalized themselves from dealing with AIDS. Continuing to turn a cold shoulder to the issue will not fix the problem. Although Blacks are being marginalized when it comes to AIDS, they are also marginalized when it comes to property and social relationships. For example, when it comes to receiving bank loans, African-Americans is marginalized heavily. Some bank loan officers practice redlining which causes Black residents, whether qualified or not, to be denied loans for property. By using the redlining technique, bank loan officers are marginalizing Blacks from being able to own their own property. Relating back to the AIDS epidemic, Black men were marginalized for having the virus. For instance, if a Black man was open about his homosexuality would be marginalized heavily. Homophobia could be a valid reason for the marginalization of Black men. With open homosexuality, an African-American could be left out from participating in activities and denied being recognized as a normal individual. Homophobia could damage an individual’s social life and leave him feeling disempowered. [4] Along with marginalization, Blacks were, and still are, a part of a power struggle. Blacks were seen, and will always be seen, as lower than Whites. Also, Blacks have been disempowered knowingly and unknowingly, which is the center of environmental racism. African-Americans have been taken advantage of and used to gain wealth and keep at the bottom of the ladder. In short, there are many types of power struggles. One does not have to see power to know that it is taking place. [5] For instance, being called an inferior race is a power struggle within itself. African-Americans that believe that they are actually inferior will begin to act that way. They will begin to doubt themselves and their abilities in life. Once they have it in their mindset that they are inferior, it will cause them to act that way. Housing Segregation is â€Å"the practice of denying African American or other minority groups equal access to housing through the process of misinformation, denial of realty and financing services, and racial steering. †[6] The act of housing discrimination involves real estate agents and landlords not providing African American families with an accurate account of available housing. Housing segregation happens when landlords and real estate agents lure White Americans to available housing only in white communities, and African Americans to Black or diverse and mixed communities. The realtor and landlord usually work together in the process and will agree not to tell the African Americans about the available units in the European American communities. This process goes back to the assumption that African Americans residents will bring down the property value of homes in the neighborhood because they will not take care of their own property. Housing segregation is intentional racism that excludes African Americans from participating fairly in the housing market. Black families should be able to live wherever they please without regardless of the demographics of the neighborhood. With all that African Americans have been through, environmental racism should not be ignored or taken lightly. People should take heed to the practice and fight for what is right. All of the above forms of environmental racism have plagued the African American community. It has caused a major shift in the urban cities such as Chicago. Real estate agents have inflated the costs of housing for Black families moving into predominantly White areas. African American families can fight the issues by becoming more aware of their surroundings and becoming familiar with the practices. They can hire good lawyers to defend them and fight for justice. With regards to the AIDS epidemic, African Americans have been marginalized when it comes to resources and thus leads to environmental racism. African American of the new generation, as a whole, should stand together and fight the justice that was promised to them in the United States Constitution. ———————– [1] Dictionary. com [2] Dictionary. com [3] Dictionary. com [4] Cathy J. Cohen, The Boundaries of Blackness (The University of Chicago Press) 47-48. [5] John Gaventa, Power and Powerlessness (The University of Illinois Press) 1-32. [6] Dictionary. com.

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Coastal Development - Assignment Example Currently, plans are underway in finding the best way of mitigating the effects of Hurricane Sandy, which is expected to hit the coastline in the near future (Hutchins and Augenstein, 2012). Although controversies have marred the proposed new construction measures at the New Jersey shore-front, the only way to protect the communities living near the shoreline is to establish new construction requirements to ensure that structures built near the shoreline are strong enough and capable of withstanding heavy storms. The devastation caused by Hurricane Sandy confirmed that the existing building codes cannot solve flooding and elevation problems witnessed whenever a storm hits New Jersey coastline. Therefore, to mitigate future damage that may be caused by heavy storms, the property owners at the New Jersey coastline will be required to elevate their buildings above the base flooding elevations (BFE). The flood elevation requirement issued by Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which is effective from October 2013, requires that properties built in the coastlines, which are prone to storms should be built above the flood elevation threshold (Foster, 2014). Building properties above the BFE will ensure that the flooding does not reach the properties in case of a storm like the Hurricane Sandy. Since storms are accompanied by heavy winds, contractors and property owners at New Jersey coastlines will be required to build structures that are capable of withstanding high winds. In this regard, the contractors will be required to ensure that properties have wind-rated roof covers capable of withstanding strong winds. Additionally, the contractors will also be required to ensure that adequate protections of openings, such as doors and windows are created to protect properties from strong wind pressure and windborne debris. Where necessary,

Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Criminal Justice - Essay Example According to Jacob Wetterling Act, a state registration must require current address registration for a period of 10 years for persons convicted of a criminal offense against a victim who is a minor or a sexually violent Offense. A minor is a person below the age of 18 years. There are specific definitions in Washington which are used to identify how an offender victimizes a minor; kidnapping of a minor and false imprisonment (except the parent), sexual conduct with the minor, manipulating of a minor to engage in sexual conduct, use of a minor in sexual performance, solicitation of a minor to practice prostitution, and any conduct that its nature a sexual offense against a minor. In 1996, the Megan’s law according to Wetterling act provided a community notification on the sex offender registration and which brought about online sex offender registration websites. Adam Walsh child protection and safety act (2006) is the most recent federal law, which organized sex offenders int o a three-tier system with third tier registrants having the most rigorous registration requirements. The third tier requirements of sex offenders (RSOs) required the offenders to update or verify their information every three months and are registered in their lifetime. Failure to update information as required under this act one was to have committed a felony offense while a sexually violent offense is any criminal offense that consists of aggravated sexual abuse or an offense that has its elements engaged in physical contact with another person with the intention of committing such an offense. In Washington all juveniles who are sex offenders were required to register. But in other states the juveniles are required to register after attaining of 18 yrs or 21 yrs. Sex offender registration and notification helped to reduce the case of sex offenders recidivism by calling their attention through the sex offender websites, letters sent home with children, door to door notification an d also flyers. However the efficiency of this registration remains questionable with research to date indicating only nominal success. Also the registration facilitates the following; deterring offenders from committing future crimes; enhances enforcement of law and the protection of public rights. Adkins, G. Huff, D. & Stageberg, P. (2000) The Iowa sex offender registry and recidivism. Des Moines: Iowa Department of Human Rights Schram, D.D., & Milloy, C.D. (1995). Community notification: A study of offender characteristics and recidivism. Washington State Institute for Public Policy. Seattle, WA: Urban Policy Research. SEX OFFENDER REGISTRATION REQUIREMENTS Sex offenders are required to register upon release from confinement or when sentenced to community supervision. The department of correction or the sentencing court registers the offender upon release to probation and alerts the offender of the requirement to register locally. The local registering agencies occur at the local police department in the jurisdiction where an offender resides. In community supervision, the supervisor officer is required to maintain information for the duration of supervision because when the supervision ends the law enforcement is responsible for offender’s registration information. Also the state registration law applies to offenders convicted in other States. According to the

OSHA class Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

OSHA class - Research Paper Example Employers need to ensure that they provide an environment free from hazards for employers to be able to work comfortably. The occupational safety and health act (OSHA) has come in as a guideline on measures that industries need to take to ensure that they reduce hazards and accidents while maximizing their profitability. Employers need to train their staff on safety measures that they can take to avoid accidents also how they can reduce the damage of accidents when they occur. Before, undertaking any training on occupational safety and health, the company needs to note down some factors, which are essential in organizing the training program. These will include the following factors: Assessment of whether training is needed. An essential factor to perform training is to know, whether companies problems can be solved through the training. In most cases it is assumed that when employees do not perform up to the required standards, training is required to improve their skills. Health and safety training should be done from the beginning, to reduce the risks of accidents and safety hazards. Researchers have found out that most accidents happen to new employees of the company. Some of the reasons that have been given for this occurrence are that they have not fully adapted to the environment and may also not know the right way of using the equipments. Training on how to use equipments and execute tasks correctly can also be helpful to minimize safety hazards. Training on the other hand, can be less effective when the causes for poor work performance may stem from lack of motivation for the workers. Identification of training requirements. Once the need for training has been established, training needs need to be determined. To choose adequately the training program, trainers needs to know the specific tasks of the employee are and how they need to perform these tasks.

Effective Discipline Without Physical Punishment Essay Example for Free

Effective Discipline Without Physical Punishment Essay Contrary to what generations of parents have experienced in their own childhood, physical punishment is not an effective method to use when rearing children. Parents should become educated in other strategies that are non-physical and more effective in curbing misbehavior in children. Positive effective methods would include using timeouts, reasoning, logical consequences and reparation. In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To discipline means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct, while the purpose of discipline is to develop and entrench desirable social habits in children. These habits are what will enable children to become productive members of society in adulthood. For children discipline is a set of rules, rewards and punishments to teach self-control. Punishments should never do physical, mental or emotional harm when dispensed. Kohn (2005) teaches us that when a major infraction occurs, parents should apply a consequence that has enough symbolic value that it convinces the child not to repeat the offense. Discipline is one of the most important elements in rearing children. The ultimate goal is to foster sound judgment and morals so the child will develop and maintain self-discipline throughout the rest of their life. Through proper discipline, children learn how to function in a family and society that is full of boundaries, rules, and laws by which we all must abide. Effective punishment can enable children to learn self-control and responsibility of their own behavior. Many experts, including The American Academy of Pediatrics [AAP] (1998) believe that effective punishment consists of both punitive and non-punitive methods, but does not involve any forms of physical punishment. The punishment set forth by the parents should be effective enough that it reduces the need for more punishment, and decrease the repeat of the offense. An imperative key we learn from Ross (1993) is that the focus be on the misbehavior and not on the punishment. The punishment set forth by the parent or guardian should change the misbehavior in the child, thereby decreasing the chance of any repeats of he misbehavior. A second key from Ross (1993) informs us that parents should keep in mind that part of reprimanding for misbehaving is also reminding children of what is behaving correctly. For the child to learn right from wrong, they need to be informed of what is right. This follow through is as important as the punishment. Building a Foundation To build and maintain a foundation for discipline to become effective, parents will need an assortment of components. The AAP (1998) informs us that there are four key components needed that are essential. First needed is a loving and supportive relationship between the child and parent. Second is a positive proactive system to support desirable behaviors. Third, is a non-combative approach for dealing with the misbehavior. Last, is consistency, parents will need to be consistent in using disciplinary techniques on a regular basis. Should parents fail to discipline a misbehavior or fail to support a desirable behavior upon each occurrence, then the child can receive a mixed message on what is right or wrong. Each of these components relies on one another to become successful as a whole (AAP, 1998). Effective Discipline Methods  Respectful communication between the child and parent is another component. However, this behavior will need to be taught to children as explained by the AAP (1998). Parents can accomplish this by modeling respectful communication themselves. From a young age, the child will begin imitating those that are surrounding them. Thereby the parents modeling the behaviors they seek to have in their children, can accomplish two components in a single effort. In addition, when communicating parents should be specific with their child, rather it is praising for a desirable behavior or correcting a misbehavior. Essentially, parents need to give correction without direction. They should also avoid using abstract language; and state in age appropriate terms that the child will understand. This will avoid confusion on the child’s part on what behavior was incorrect and why it was. According to the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health Human Development [NICHD] (2001), for correction through discipline to have a lasting effect, it must have reforming value. Parents will need to be prepared to deal with each misbehavior in advance by having clear defined strategies of effective discipline to use. For success, it is imperative that each punishment given fit the misbehavior. Some of the most effective punishments are also the most time consuming for a parent. Keep in mind though the rewards are by far greater when seeing the child moving through each developmental stage with ease, largely due to the parents continued use of effective discipline. The most commonly used discipline method is isolation or more informally referred to as a time-out for toddler discipline. This consists of temporarily separating a child from an environment where the inappropriate behavior has occurred. The Nemours Foundation (2008a) explains that the theory behind a time-out is that children are frightened by their own lack of control thus leading to a tantrum. Moreover, when given the chance to regain self-control on their own in a quiet place free of distractions, learn to develop internal self-control. Again, follow through is needed, where the parent will explain what the misbehavior was to the child to increase the chances of fewer occurrences in the future. An infrequent punishment to be applied for a misbehavior would be depravation. To deprive or refuse a child a privilege has to equal the severity of the misbehavior. Moreover, children should learn that privileges come with responsibility and be earned. A privilege that is of value to the child, such as watching television or playing with friends, would be a privilege to remove. An example of a mismatch would be a depriving a toddler their favorite television program for a month for forgetting to pick up their toys. The infraction does not equal the punishment; the length of time is too long for the age of the child. An important point for parents to remember when using this method of discipline with very young children is that toddlers generally have very short memories as recommended by Ross (1993). So when a privilege is taken away from a child for two or three days the child may forget about the punishment the second day. Grounding is a form of punishment usually for older children and teenagers that restricts their movement inside and outside of the home. However, bear in mind that extended periods can backfire, causing the child to feel persecuted or picked on and starting a negative retaliation cycle. Many experts including author Kohn (2005) suggest compounding grounding with other alternatives that would allow them to earn a reduction in the grounding period. Likewise, depending upon the nfraction that occurred parents could also increase the severity of grounding by restricting the child from certain privileges in the home as well as outside of the home, like no television or phone calls. Another effective discipline tactic is reparation. Reparation is an active punishment, meaning the child will need to work off the infraction before allowed to do anything else. While working off the infraction the child will have time to reflect over the incident and the subsequent consequence. An example would be an extra chore not normally done by the child, like washing the windows versus picking up their room. Reparation also takes supervision from the parents, where deprivation does not. The Nemours Foundation (2008b) however believes that, of the two, reparation is the more effective of the two punishments. Another effective discipline for older children and teenagers would be the use of logical consequences. This provides opportunities that allow children to make decisions on their own, and incidentally learning to weigh the consequences of their actions. This discipline practice offers both a discipline for the misbehavior and a great building block for children, teaching them to think ahead of instant gratification. Using logical consequences does require some creativity, time and energy on the part of the parents. The net gain is worthwhile because it effectively teaches children lessons in behaving in socially acceptable ways and in becoming a mature, responsible adult. An example would be allowing the child to work off an infraction and because they have done such a good job without complaining, you have given them five dollars. Next, allow the child to make the decision either to use the money to pay off a previous debt to the next-door neighbor for having broken their window or to use it for ice cream later with their friends. When the child chooses to pay off the debt, the parent would give high praise and possibly an additional reward for making such a mature decision. Logical reasoning and positive reinforcement work very well together in producing the desirable results wanted in teenagers. NICHD (2001) points out that a child can learn, that mistakes are an inevitable part of life and that it is not so important that they made a mistake but that they take responsibility to correct the mistake (Nemours Foundation, 2008b; NICHD, 2001). Praise and intangible rewards are a great practice to use when rewarding desirable behavior. Positive reinforcement through praise is something children will receive not just from their parents but also from their teachers, friends and eventually their employer and co-workers. The NICHD (2001) emphasizes that children are more responsive to positive statements; however make sure your compliments are truthful. Children, like adults, will see through false flattery. Reinforcement should also be age-appropriate. Expecting a teenager to change their behavior by rewarding them with stickers is likely to be ineffective. The flip to positive reinforcement is satiation. Satiation is the term used to describe a situation of a reinforcement losing its effectiveness. For example, if a child is receiving sweets as reinforcement, it is likely that after an extended period of time they will tire of the candy thus losing effectiveness. Satiation can also occur if too much reinforcement is being used, as pointed out by the Nemours Foundation (2008b). An example would be, earning up to ten minutes of playtime a day might serve as reinforcement for a longer period of time, versus being given the opportunity to earn an hour of play time. Examples of positive reinforcement for younger children would be hugs, special time, unique privileges, etc. , for encouraging good behavior (Nemours Foundation, 2008b; NICHD, 2001). Corporal Punishment and the Negative Effects The most disconcerting form of punishment is physical punishment. Physical punishment has negative effects, both mentally and emotionally on every living being in this world. Moreover, when physical punishment is applied to children for a misbehavior it severs no reforming valve. A child’s mind will not understand the context to what is right or wrong. They will only know pain, fear, and the fear will grow and overshadow logical reasoning. When a parent strikes a child, they are communicating to the child that they are bigger, stronger and entitled to be violent. When the child grows up, they will feel that they are entitled to act the same way. Parents who use physical punishment as a method of correcting a misbehavior are instilling fear in the child vs. sense of right and wrong. Sanders, Cann and Markie-Dadds (2003) inform us that parents who are at risk of abusing their children are more likely to have unrealistic expectations of children’s capabilities. Physical punishment sends a mixed message to children and reinforces aggressive behavior. According to Vittrup and Holden (2006), when parents model aggressive behaviors by spanking, they reinforce the idea that physical aggression is the way to get what you want. Parents can break away from using physical punishment as a discipline method. It is possible for well-intentioned loving parents to get angry enough with their children to use physical punishment like spanking or slapping. However, this is a slippery slope for parents. Parents see the instant result when the child is three from a spank on the butt and will be quicker to use this method again to achieve the same results, as they grow older. Parents may only mean for the spanking to be a punishment, however many experts state that it is more accurately used as a means of releasing the parents own anger and frustration. Although these parents are well aware that the purpose of discipline is to teach, the danger of using physical punishment repeatedly and abusing the child becomes greater. The AAP (1998) maintains apart from suffering physical pain, the child will also feel as though there is something wrong with them (instead of something wrong with their behavior). This can create resentment, rejection and humiliated. All of which can lead to body and self-image issues in the child later in life. Any form of physical punishment is traumatic and parents should take heed before striking a child. According to the Severe (1996) as well as many other child development experts, physical punishment can provoke violent thoughts in a childs mind and possibly teach them that violence is an acceptable behavior in a relationship. Author Vittrup and Holden (2006) tells us that repetition of physical punishment can make the child immune against it and then it will not even work as a temporary correction method. The AAP (1998) points out that, discipline should be based on expectations that are appropriate for the age of the child, and it should be used to set reasonable, consistent limits while permitting choices among acceptable alternatives. Discipline teaches children moral and social standards. The APP (1998) contends discipline should also protect children from harm by teaching what is safe while guiding them to respect the rights and property of others. Although verbal explanations may help older children understand their punishment, reasoning is ineffective if children are incapable of understanding the explanation. According to Nemours Foundation (2009c), children younger than 18 months are typically unable to apply the context of the reasons for punishment, therefore their overwhelming desire to explore heir environment makes punishment less effective. In the moment of an incident and those immediately following, parents can feel a mix of emotions and they will need to separate their anger before they impose a punishment. The best advice from the Nemours Foundation ( 2009c) to a parent in the heat of the moment during an incident of misbehavior is for the parent to take time to cool down. Telling the child to go to their room will thereby give the parent time to calm down and rationally think over the incident before dispensing with a punishment. The parent can then avoid lashing out in anger or fear. When the parent is clam enough, they can then engage the child and talk over the incident, explaining the why of the misbehavior and what the child’s punishment will be. According to the Vittrup and Holden (2006) yelling, threatening, scolding, and spanking are not considered effective punishments. As these reactions release the parent’s anger, however they have little long-term effect on correcting the misbehavior, and are primarily a release valve for the parent’s frustration. Physical punishment is also a leading cause in the destruction of the trust bonds between parents and children. Some researchers, including authors Kohn (2005) and Severe (1996), have maintained that corporal punishment actually works against its objective (obedience); since children will not voluntarily obey an adult, they do not trust. Children subjected to physical punishment will grow resentful, shy, insecure and or violent. Once the bonds of trust are in question by the child, the entire foundation parents built to form effective discipline in children will be destroyed. Since the core of the foundation is a loving caring environment with trust, the child will feel incapable of trusting the parent in the future. Conclusion Parenting professionals and organizations including the NICHD (2001) are participating in an ongoing effort to change traditional parental use of physical punishment for a means of discipline to more effective non-physical methods. While a major purpose of discipline is to develop desirable social habits in children, the ultimate goal is to foster sound judgment and morals so children will develop and maintain self-discipline throughout the rest of their lives. Children raised in a way that stresses positive non-physical discipline will understand their own behavior better, show independence, and respect themselves and others. These children will then carry forward the non-violent methods of effective punishment onto their children and the cycle will keep repeating for future generations. In many cultures, parents have historically had the right to use physical punishment when appropriate in discipline. However, legislation in some countries has changed in recent years, particularly in continental Europe. Domestic corporal punishment has now, been outlawed in 25 countries around the world, beginning with Sweden in 1979. The United States is not one of these countries; however, through means of education we can evolve and join their ranks. To borrow from Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American Human Rights Activist, character is higher than intellect. It is the choices we make in the moment of the incident and those immediately following that determine our character and set an example for our children to follow.

Stereotype Threat Is A Phenomenon Psychology Essay

Stereotype Threat Is A Phenomenon Psychology Essay Membership in a stereotyped group is the one condition that must always be present in order for stereotype threat to occur. Everyone is a member of at least one stereotyped group, and is vulnerable to being affected by stereotype threat in different situations. Although greatly contested, women and members of ethnic minorities are not the only groups affected by stereotype threat. Research on stereotype threat has shown that a diverse set of groups can be affected by stereotype threat. Aronson, Lustina, Good, Keough, Steele, and Brown (1999) showed that White males performed worse on a math test when the performance of Asians in mathematics was made salient. In this context, White males are part of the stereotyped group because of the stereotype that White males are worse at math than Asian males. Individuals Who Identify Strongly With Groups Certain individuals are more vulnerable to stereotype threat than others because their memberships are salient to them in many situations. These individuals strongly identify with groups which use gender or ethnicity as inclusive criteria. This strong identification with groups can make stereotypes chronically accessible (what does this mean?). In turn, they will increase stereotype threat more often and in varying situations. Whereas certain individuals need to have their stereotyped group membership made salient, these individuals are always aware of their stereotypes. Marx, Stapel and Muller (2005) found that the performance of women on a math test was inversely proportionate to the degree to which their gender was emphasized. Cole, Matheson and Anisman (2007) found similar results. Higher ethnic identification predicted greater psychological distress and poorer performance for minority students in their first year of college. Stereotype Belief and Knowledge Though stereotype threat can arise in situations where the person is unconsciously aware of the stereotype, it is more easily processed when the person is aware or knowledgeable of the stereotype. Since adults are usually aware of many stereotypes, McKown and Weinstein (2003) conducted a study that examined the knowledge of stereotypes by children and its effects on their performance in domains that produce stereotype threat in adults. The researchers found that children who were aware of stereotypes were more likely to show effects of stereotype threat. Belief of stereotypes is another factor that affects the degree to which a stereotype threat is experienced. In a study by Schmader, Johns, and Barquissau (2004), women who endorsed gender stereotypes about womens math ability did worse on a task in the stereotyped domain when under stereotype threat more so than their counterparts who did not endorse a gender stereotype. Consequences of Stereotype Threat Decreased Performance on Tasks Test performance in academic settings is the context in which most stereotype threat research is conducted. Cole, Matheson and Anisman (2007) found that ethnic minority students at a predominantly White Canadian institution showed increased levels of anxiety and depression compared to the White students, and had lower grades at the end of the school year. Scores on Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) task, a task that has been described as being a pure measure of cognitive ability and culture-free, have been shown to be affected by stereotype threat (Brown Day, 2006). Performance on tasks in other domains has also been affected by stereotype threat. Undergraduate female golfers performed more poorly when the stereotype of females being poor golfers was purported either subtly or blatantly (Stone McWhinnie, 2008). The reason for reduced performance when under stereotype threat has been attributed to factors such as anxiety (Max Stropel, 2006), physiological arousal (Blascovic h et al., 2001) and reduced working memory capacity (Schmader and Johns, 2003). Changes in Appraisal of Situations When faced with stereotype threat, individuals use different strategies to account for lapses in their performance. Some individuals attribute internal reasons/causes as to why they failed the task. In a study by Koch, MÃ ¼ller, and Sieverding (2008), participants were asked to find a document on a computer and save it to an external storage device. Participants were told that women perform worse on the task than men (stereotype threat condition for women) or that women perform better on the task than men (stereotype threat condition for men). Women in the stereotype threat condition were more likely to make internal attributions for their failures than men in the same experiment. Self-handicapping is another strategy used by individuals affected by stereotype threat. These individuals erect barriers to performance in order to provide attributions for their failure (Stone, 2002). A specific type of self handicapping is task discounting. Tasks are critiqued in some way in order to ex plain poor performance. A study by Lesko and Corpus (2006) found that women who were taking part in a math task and under stereotype threat were more likely to agree with statements such as this test is not an accurate measurement of my math ability. Reducing Stereotype Threat Reframing the Task Stereotype threat can arise when task descriptions or test instructions make threatened identities and negative stereotypes more accessible. Ergo, stereotype threat can be reduced by reframing a task in such a way that stereotypes are not invoked or made salient. Steele and Aronson (1995) were able to reduce stereotype threat by explicitly stating that a test was not diagnostic in nature. Though this strategy is unrealistic in regular testing situations, other task reframing methods have been shown to be equally effective. Gender stereotypes are common, and affect the performance of women in stereotyped domains (Spencer, Steele Quinn, 1999). However, gender stereotypes and their subsequent effect on test performance can be reduced by reframing the task. For example, Spencer, Steele and Quinn (1999) showed that when both male and female participants completed a mathematics test and were told that there would be gender differences, the males outperformed the females. Contrarily, when the task was reframed and the participants were told that there would be no gender differences, the scores of the male and female participants were equivalent. Another task reframing strategy is addressing the fairness of the task. Good, Aronson and Harder (2008) were able to reduce stereotype threat present on a mathematical ability test by assuring the test takers that this mathematics test has not shown any gender differences in performance or mathematics ability. Even the though the tests outlined in the above studies were diagnostic in nature, reframing the tasks was able to negate potential stereotype threat effects. Task reframing strategies can be employed by testing agencies in order to reduce the potential effects of stereotype threat, which can affect the scores of test takers belonging to certain demographics on standardized tests. De-emphasizing Threatened Identities Stereotype threat can be reduced in situations where the threatened social identities are made less salient. Threatened social identities can consist of gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and other domains that are often stereotyped. Stricker and Ward (2004) conducted field studies that examined the effects of asking about ethnicity prior to Advanced Placement (AP) calculus exams. A re-analysis of their data by Danaher and Crandall (2008) found that soliciting identity information at the end of the exam decreased sex differences in test scores by 33% compared to when identity questions were asked at the beginning of the exam. Danaher and Crandall concluded that if the demographic questions were asked at the end of AP calculus exams, 4700 additional female students would receive a credit annually. Stereotype threat can also be reduced if individuals are encouraged to think in ways that reduce the significance of the threatened identity. Ambady, Paik, Steele, Owen-Smith and Mitchell (2004) found that when women were individuated by having aspects of the self made more salient, they performed better on a difficult math test than women who were not individuated. The researchers concluded that individuation allows individuals to distance themselves from the threatened social identity. Emphasizing the similarities between groups has also been shown to reduce stereotype threat. Rosenthal, Crisp and Sue (2007) found that generating similarities between men and women in academic settings led to higher performance expectations and improved performance by women in a stereotyped domain. Rosenthal, Crisp and Sue (2007) selected mathematical ability as the stereotyped domain in which similarities between ingroup and outgroup employment strategies would be tested. Individuals with multiple social identities have a low risk of being affected by stereotype threat. Gresky, Ten Eyck, Lord and McIntyre (2005) examined the role of multiple social identities in undergraduate university students. The participants were instructed to answer questions from what was supposedly a new version of the GRE math exam. Stereotype treat was induced by informing the participants that men usually outperform women on math tests. The participants were then split into three conditions. Before the math test, some subjects were instructed to create a simple self-concept map whereas others were instructed to create a complex self-concept map. Subjects in the control condition did not create a self-concept map. The female participants who did not create a self-concept map or created a simple self-concept map performed poorly on the math test whereas the female participants who were instructed to create a complex self-concept map were unaffected by the stereotype threat ma nipulation. Creating self-concept maps did not have an effect on the scores of the male participants, presumably because they were not affected by the stereotype threat manipulation. Consequently, encouraging stereotype threatened individuals to think of themselves as multifaceted individuals reduces vulnerability to stereotype threat effects. Though all people have multiple identities, some are more vulnerable to stereotype threat than others. This can be explained by the fact that different social identities are highlighted to different degrees in individuals. Having stereotyped social identities that are easily highlighted (not the right word) increases the vulnerability of an individual to stereotype threat. Mcglone and Aronson (2006) demonstrated this effect by instructing participants to complete the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test (VMRT) in varying conditions of identity salience. This salience was achieved by having participants complete questionnaires that highlighted different social identities. For the male participants, performance on the VMRT was best when gender was made salient and worst when their status as citizens of the Northeast was made salient. The female participants performed the best when their college identity was made salient and performed the worst when their gender was emphasized. Affirming Self-Worth Stereotype threat acts on an individuals fear of confirming negative stereotypes (Steele Aronson, 1995). Self-affirmation can be used as a strategy to protect the self from perceived threats. Self-worth can be increased by encouraging people to think about characteristics, roles and skills that they are proud of or view as important. Schimel, Arndt, Banko and Cook (2004) examined whether self-affirmation and affirming self-worth can protect individuals from stereotype threat. Before completing a math test, female participants were randomly assigned sentence fragments to complete that provided either intrinsic affirmation, extrinsic affirmation or no affirmation. The participants were also placed in either a stereotype threat or control condition. The researchers found that women in the stereotype threat condition who reaffirmed their self worth by completing the sentence fragments that provided intrinsic motivation performed better on the exam in the stereotype threat condition than in the control condition. Conversely, women in the stereotype threat condition who extrinsically self-affirmed performed worse in the stereotype threat condition compared to the control condition. Cohen, Garcia, Apfel and Master (2006) came to similar conclusions when studying seventh grade students in racially diverse middle schools. Students were assigned to self-affirmation conditions and no self-affirmation conditions. The students in the self-affirmation condition were instructed to write an essay that indicated values that were important to them and why they were important to them. Students who did not self-affirm were instructed to write an essay about their least important values and why they were not important. The researchers found that African-American students in the self-affirmation condition performed 0.3 grade points better over the semester compared to African-American students who did not self-affirm. These results are notable because African-American students are the demographic that is usually most affected by stereotype threat in academic settings. As a result, enhancing the individuals internal coping capacity through providing affirmation has shown to improve the performance of individuals that are most susceptible to stereotype threat. Providing Role Models Individuals who focus on outgroup members who perform well on a specific domain have a negative effect on their performance on tasks from that domain. Huguet and RÃ ©gner (2007) showed that the performance of female participants on a math test in a mixed environment was negatively affected by their thoughts about males who performed well in mathematics. This type of stereotype threat effect can be reduced by providing ingroup role models that are proficient in a specific domain. Marx and Roman (2002) examined this effect by providing females with role models who were competent in math. Male and female participants were given a difficult math test to complete. When the experimenter was a male, the female participants performed poorer on the exam than the male participants. However, when the test was administered by a female who embodied subject confidence, the female participants performed equally as well as the male participants. The role models provided do not need to be present in order to reduce stereotype threat. Various studies have shown that stereotype threat can be reduced by providing role models through priming. McIntyre et al. (2005) examined the relation between exposure to positive role models through priming and reduction of stereotype threat effects. Undergraduate students were asked to participate in two studies, and were told that women perform worse than men on math tests. The researchers also manipulated the tasks by having the participants read anywhere from 0-4 essays describing successful women. The researchers found that the performance of the female participants increased as the number of essay read increased, supporting the finding that providing role models decreases stereotype threat effect. Attributing Difficulties to External Factors The effects of stereotype threat can be reduced if difficulties on tasks are attributed to external factors rather than the self. Ben-Zeev, Fein, and Inzlicht (2005) illustrated the effect of attributing difficulties to external factors on stereotype threat. Women who identified highly with mathematics completed a math test in the presence of either 2 males (stereotype threat condition) or 2 females (control condition). Participants were also shown a subliminal noise generator before the test. They were told that the machine would either increase arousal and heart rate or that it would not produce any adverse effects. The female participants in the stereotype threat condition performed worse on the math test only when they were told that the subliminal noise generator would not produce any adverse effects. The participants who were told that the machine would increase arousal attributed their difficulties to the noise generator, and did not experience stereotype threat effects. Provi ding subliminal noise generators are not practical in normal testing situations. However, recent studies have used different techniques to produce the same effect. Johns, Inzlict and Schmader (2008) eliminated stereotype threat effect by telling individuals under stereotype threat conditions that the anxious feelings they were experiencing would not hinder their performance, and might even improve their performance. Attributing difficulties to external factors is a strategy that can be utilized effectively in order to reduce stereotype threat. Conclusion Stereotype threat is highly pervasive and is not restricted to people with certain characteristics or backgrounds. Although it can affect anyone, certain individuals are more susceptible to the effects of stereotype threat than others. The effects of stereotype threat make it a serious problem that needs to be addressed. The literature has revealed that although stereotype threat cannot be completely eliminated, certain cognitive reappraisal strategies can help reduce or attenuate its effects. These strategies include reframing tasks, providing role models, providing external attributions for difficulties and deemphasizing threatened social identities. These strategies have been shown to be effective, and should be considered in situations where stereotype threat is known to be present.

Brokeback Mountain And The Western

Brokeback Mountain And The Western Brokeback Mountain (Ang Lee, 2005) integrates traditional western motifs and iconography, and follows a common plot structure of the genre, but at the same time overlooks certain aspects and introduces new concepts and motifs, mixing western with melodrama to create a contemporary Western. Brokeback Mountains queerness challenges us to question the usefulness of boundaries and categories, not just between straight and gay masculinities, but mainly between the films genre leanings as both melodrama and western. The western represents American culture, explaining its present in terms of its past and virtually redefining the past to accommodate the present. Thomas Schatz (1981) The westerns various cultural forms indicate the central role that it continues to play in conceptions of national identity. If the western genre represents American culture, as Schatz implies, then can the film Brokeback Mountain be considered a western? On the one hand, if Brokeback Mountain is to be considered a western this would imply that homosexuality has always been part of the narrative and logic of the western. However, to reject the film as a western would also overlook the ways in which it rewords the genre through contemporary political concerns. Brokeback Mountain is made in such a way as to be considered both a revision of and an extension of the western genre. It integrates traditional western motifs and iconography, and follows a common plot structure of the genre, but at the same time overlooks certain aspects and introduces new concepts and motifs, mixing western with melodrama to create a contemporary western. In most films, a true western is set in a particular historical moment approximately between 1836 and the Mexican Revolution in 1913 (Kitses, 1969). Brokeback Mountain is set between 1963 and 1983, which seems to come too late by historical definition. The impression given by the film, however, is of an American setting that represents a continuum with the old ways of western life. This western life, though drastically altered by twentieth-century capitalism is seemingly unchanged by twentieth-century ideology. Although Brokeback Mountain is not set in the distant past, it clearly conjures up the mythology of the West; the lonesome cowboy figure: the cowboy attire; the solitary lifestyle; the restriction of the homestead on mens freedom; working with animals; rodeo culture; the power of the wilderness; and melancholy produced through country music. Since Brokeback Mountain begins in 1963, it might not represent the west as an epic moment and Ennis and Jack might not be considered rea l cowboys but it portrays a west that exists through the ideologies and practices of specific American regions associated with western mythology. Set between Wyoming and Texas, Brokeback Mountain still presents the West as a mythic, imagined fantasy, a concept of a way of life that remains intact with the west of the past. Brokeback Mountain presents the contrasting relationship between wilderness and civilisation through its aesthetic conflict between freedom and restriction, namely between the mountain and the town. The film characterises the western through its structuring of life in the wilderness, symbolised through Ennis and Jacks freedom to express their love there. In contrast there is the reality of rural town life with their respective wives and children, which forces them to conform to a failed normal life. As Gary Needham states, Brokeback Mountain claims the landscape and the frontier for its symbolic meaning to express freedom and the cowboys affiliation and closeness to nature, the land, and of course to the other cowboys who might be out there too. The wilderness is fabricated by the title Brokeback Mountain. Created by Annie Proulx, it not only represents isolation and secrecy, but also empowerment. The mountain symbolises the only place where Jack and Ennis are able to express themsel ves unrestricted and free from fear, shame or paranoia. The place comes to symbolise a temporary escape from the closet, an almost-freedom, and this is shown through the landscape in the film. The landscape is juxtaposed against the bleak suffocating small town. Masculinity and the western landscape are the two most symbolic elements in the western because of their power to be translated into epic mythologies and concepts of freedom. The traditional western is, more than anything else, about the conflict between civilization and savagery on the frontier. In the genre, the western man has a duty to uphold justice and honour all that is good in civilisation. He is characterised as brave, honourable, rugged and a loner. Tompkins (2004) argues that the west functions as a symbol of freedom, and the opportunity for conquest. It seems to offer escape from the conditions of life in modern industrial society; from mechanized existence, economic dead end, social entanglements, unhappy personal relations, political injustice. The desire to change place also signals a powerful need for self-transformation. With his tall masculine frame, quiet reserve and deep voice, Ennis looks and sounds like the typical western hero traditionally seen in the genre. E nnis is forced to deal with the pull of the wilderness while at the same time remaining true to civilisation by quitting his job to attend his daughters wedding rather than quitting to see his unorthodox lover Jack. In Brokeback Mountain, every main character suffers because of the masculine western myth, with Ennis suffering the most. The antihero Jack meets his antihero end at the hands of the unsympathetic civilisation which cannot accept his true identity. But the hero (Ennis), the frontier cowboy who stays close to the land but resists natures temptations, and who attempts to do right by his daughters has a more painful fate. He is left ultimately alone in his trailer forever knowing that what might have been can never be. And this is all because he is the man of the west, the lonely hero forever doomed to tread alone. The most obvious change introduced to the western genre in Brokeback Mountain is the issue of homosexuality. The lead characters Ennis and Jack share a homosexual love interest, a concept very rarely explored in western texts. Chris Packard (2006) states, If there is something national about the cowboy, and if there is something homoerotic about the partnerships he forms in the wilderness, then there is something homoerotic about American national identity as the literary West conceives it. Because of this, homosexuality is not an issue that is readily explored in western literature or cinema, especially within the western genre. The romantic interest in the traditional western is the femme fatale, desired for her feminine charm and allure. Brokeback Mountain twists this concept by placing another male (Jack) as the heros love interest. However, in doing so, Jack merely takes the place of the femme fatale and is therefore attached with the same ideologies of femininity. It is Jack wh o seduces Ennis, tempting Ennis when he calls him into the tent. So while exploring the relationship between the two men, Brokeback Mountain aims to put a twist on the traditional western, but ultimately adheres to the motif of the femme fatale. Although many of the motifs and structures used in Brokeback Mountain follow the western genre, the ultimate powerlessness and emotional involvement produced in the film fall into the melodrama genre. The power of melodrama to create intense feelings is contrasted with the serious genre of the western in which masculine identity is of greater importance than any romantic connection. The film creates overly emotional responses and attachments through portrayal of tears, separation and loss, thus removing all seriousness, reason and propriety. our experiential investment in the narrative of Jack and Ennis relationship is primarily emotional; for Needham, then, Brokeback Mountain mobilises melodrama as a tactical way of provoking feeling and sentiment that are politically efficacious. It exhibits an excess of confusion, suffering and restlessness and it expands on two key motifs of melodrama in order to express and to some extent work through this excess. By utilising a version of the maximised type David Lusted has argued, the Western emerged in the earliest days of Hollywood as a generic form of melodrama, dependent on the melodrama stage for its dominant narratives, themes and performance styles (Lusted, 1992: 13). [1] These melodramatic themes, Lusted suggests, include love sacrificed and reunited; suffering, misunderstanding and reconciliation; victimhood, emotionalism and pathos (Lusted, 1992: 17ff). The films melodramatic mode and form are constructed through narrative situations of separation and loss. Suffering and failure, and helplessness and pathos. Brokeback Mountain is places as a melodrama to narrate to great affect the ongoing problems of the closet and homophobia. Brokeback Mountain uses several structures which fall under the melodrama genre. These include and expressive use of music to produce heightened emotion; discrepancies in point of view and the timing of narrative events that are mobilised to induce tears. It is Brokeback Mountains melodramatic form that allows it to express a history of unjury, backward feeling and affectivity thought the conventions of melodrama that work so well in dealing with themes of secrecy, passivity, paranoia, shame and temporal irreversibility. though many western films traditionally use long shots, Brokeback Mountain makes use of close-up shots to key the audience into the main characters relationship. This heightens the sense of intimacy between the two characters. Nearly all of the love scenes between Jack and Ennis are close-ups, bringing the audience into their relationship. The Western genre is ultimately one which incorporates other genres, including romance, war, melodrama and action. As Kitses (1969) puts it, Experiment seems always to have been varied and development dynamic, the pendulum swinging back and forth between opposing poles of emphasis on drama and history, plots and spectacle, romance and realism, seriousness and comedy. Brokeback Mountain utilises this flexibility to successfully introduce new ideas into its plot, while still retaining traditional structures of the Western. Not only does the film follow the genre specific framework and incorporate classical Western motifs (cowboy costumes, alcohol, and a landscape which represents paradise), it also builds on the theme, creating a new and contemporary version of the genre and demonstrates the detrimental impact to identity brought about by social ideologies of what is normal. Brokeback Mountains queerness challenges us to question the usefulness of boundaries and categories, not just between straight and gay masculinities, but mainly between the films genre leanings as both melodrama and Western.

The Role of the Gods in the Odyssey Essay -- Homer, Odyssey Essays

Religion was deeply intertwined the culture of the ancient Greeks. In their stories, they prayed to the gods to satisfy their needs and offer assistance in their endeavors, and the gods would occasionally appear to select Greeks to give counsel, gifts, or other forms of aid. Alternatively, if the desires or endeavors of a mortal or mortals displeased one or more of the gods, they would also interfere with the fulfillment of their goals. In Homer’s Odyssey, the gods appear to or interfere with both Telemachus and Odysseus, either to help or hinder them in their journeys. Although the gods are responsible the difficulty Odysseus faces returning from Troy, they are equally responsible for motivating and assisting Odysseus and Telemachus in their respective travels. If not for divine interference, neither Odysseus nor Telemachus would have journeys to make. The gods are first responsible for establishing the conditions under which the story begins. While the Greek soldiers had returned home from Troy, Odysseus remained trapped as â€Å"the brightest goddess, Calypso, held him her hollow grottoes† because â€Å"she wanted him as a husband† (Homer, Odyssey 1.5, Translation by Allen Mandelbaum). Calypso traps Odysseus on her island of Ogygia and â€Å"keeps the sad Odysseus there—although he weeps. Her words are fond and fragrant, sweet and soft—so she would honey him to cast far off his Ithaca† (1.7). He remains on Ogygia for years, leaving the care of his home to his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus. Because Calypso keeps him away for years, Odysseus is presumed dead and his absence invites suitors to his home. These suitors look to win the hand of Penelope, Odysseus’ wife. This state of affairs is the overall cause of Telemachus’ d... ...a, escaping Calypso and the island of Ogygia, and Telemachus from Ithaca to Pylos and Sparta in search of his lost father. While The Odyssey tells of the courage both men demonstrate during their respective travels, their quests are the results of the intentions and desires of gods. Odysseus is trapped in exile on Ogygia by the will of Poseidon, whose anger Odysseus attracts when he blinds the Cyclops Polyphemus, son of Poseidon, and by the love of Calypso, who wishes to make Odysseus her husband. He is released from Ogygia and permitted to return to Ithaca only by the command of Zeus, as delivered by Hermes. Telemachus, rather than being trapped physically, was detained emotionally, feeling helpless to repel the suitors wooing Penelope. Only through the motivation of the goddess Athena did Telemachus find the will and courage to embark in search of Odysseus.

Paul Monettes Love Alone :: Poetry Poem Poet Essays

Paul Monette's Love Alone Loss. Grief. Mourning. Anger. Disbelief. Emotions are in abundance when a loved one passes away. People need to find a way to cope with the situations and often need to express themselves by writing their feelings down in order to get them out. This is exactly what Paul Monette does in his book of poetry title â€Å"Love Alone† in remembrance of his companion Rog. Through writing his poetry Monette describes his emotions and the events that occurred during Rog’s battle with AIDS. By Monette’s transitioning through different emotions, the reader begins to understand the pain the author is dealt. Touching upon Kubler-Ross’ five stages of death including denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance, Monette transitions to Rog’s decline in health. Using different fonts and no punctuation, the lines are interpreted by the reader using instincts to know when to begin and end a sentence. Evident in the poems â€Å"The Very Sameà ¢â‚¬ , â€Å"The Half-life†, and â€Å"Current Status†, Monette gives a description of loss that makes the reader tingle. The poem â€Å"The Very Same† was written at Rog’s funeral. Family and friends of Paul try to get him to move on but Monette, being insulted to think that he can move on so quickly, does not adhere to the advice. Monette felt a special connection with Rog and felt as if a part of him died when Rog died He felt as if he lost his other half. To express the intonation in which the reader should interpret the poem different styles of font express the emotions and give the tone of Monette’s voice. â€Å"BUT THIS IS MY PAGE IT CANNOT BE TURNED†(Monette 20). Written in all capital letters the reader interprets this as an exclamatory remark. The italics on â€Å"is† emphasizes that word should be stressed. Monette is very angry at this point that everyone is telling him to move on, to â€Å"turn the page.† But he feels as if there is no page to turn to. He and Rog were one soul in two bodies. How can someone live with half a s oul. The use of italics is interpreted as a softened way of speaking.

Animal Testing Should Be Outlawed Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive 20

According to Biology Online, animal experimentation is defined as the use of animals in experiments and development projects usually to determine toxicity, dosing and efficacy of test drugs before proceeding to human clinical trials. Animal experimentation has been going on since ancient Greece when Aristotle and Hippocrates first made their model of the human body based on what they had observed through animal dissection. Then, Romans used animals to do more psychological tests on animals like pigs, monkeys and dogs. After that, the Renaissance period took up physiological studies. Since then, the 20th century had a huge increase in animal testing until 1980 when activists started standing up against the labs. Activists have not been very successful at protecting the animals’ rights in some cases and the past decades have seen a noticeable increase in animal testing for many reasons (Baumans). Today, despite activist’s efforts, animal testing is still commonly used. Ne vertheless, animal testing is unethical and should be outlawed. People in favor of animal testing believe that animals are needed for any sort of medical advancement. They believe that without testing on live animals, our medical field would not be able to make improvements. Scientists assume that humans would be hindered enormously if they did not test drugs on animals before they were released to the human world. They also think that animals are tested to do various behavioral and genetic testing. People in favor of animal testing are under the impression that the animals are a great help towards psychologists in finding out more about the brain and how the human brain works. They think that without the animals, nobody would be able to fully understand how the ... ...ety. aavs.org, 2010. Web. 16 Nov. 2010. . Bantwal, Natasha. "Arguments Against Animal Testing." Buzzle.com: Intelligent Life on the Web. Buzzle.com, 2010. Web. 16 Nov 2010. against-animal-testing.html>. Baumans, V. "Use of animals in experimental research: an ethical dilemma?." Gene Therapy (2004): S64–S66. Web. 9 Nov 2010. . Goldman, Laura. "New System May Replace Lab Rats with Robots." Change.org. Change.org, 08 Aug 2010. Web. 16 Nov 2010. . "Research Alternatives." CHAI Online. CHAI Online: Concern for Helping Animals In Israel , 2010. Web. 16 Nov 2010. .

Three Kingdoms

The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Gojoseon, and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. The Three Kingdoms period ran from 57 AD until Silla's triumph over Koguryo in 668,[1] which marked the beginning of the North and South States period ( ) of Unified Silla in the South and Balhae in the North. The Three Kingdoms of Korea( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Paekche and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium. I think it is very interesting that in ancient China also had a period named â€Å"three kingdoms†. But we all known, it’s totally different with the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† in Korea. China would be Sui and Tang dynasties when Korea was in the period of â€Å"Three Kingdoms†. In the C hinese history, Sui and Tang dynasties had been the most prosperity period. Sui and Tang dynasties had a strong influence in Asia; the relationship of the Three Kingdoms with China presented a complex situation.On one hand, the three kingdoms launched bold military assaults against china itself at times, one the other hand, none of the Three Kingdoms showed any hesitation in adopting whatever elements of Chinese culture and statecraft might be useful for its own development. The social development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The Koguryo Kingdom was founded in 37 B. C. , and by the first century, it had firmly established itself as a powerful state. Koguryo developed into a powerful nation and acted as a bulwark against the aggressive northern nations and China. 2] (There is another view in china that the ancient Kingdom of Koguryo (37 BC–AD668) was China’s vassal state, of course this view ignited a firestorm of protest in South Korea. [3]) When we talk about t he social development of Koguryo we have to refer to the King Sosurim(371-384). The King Sosurim reshaped the pattern of Koguryo’s institutions. He adopted Buddhism and established a national Confucian academy in 372. Buddhism would give the nation spiritual unity, the national Confucian academy was essential to instituting a new bureaucratic structure, and the administrative code would systematize the state structure itself.In this way Koguryo completed its initial creation of a centralized aristocratic state. These internal arrangements laid the groundwork for external expansion. King Kwanggaet’o(391-413) vigorously added new domains to Koguryo by conquest. His great military campaigns recorded on a huge stone stele still standing at his tomb. Dominated by this king, Koguryo became a vast kingdom extending over two-thirds of Korean peninsula and much of Manchuria as well. Then, King Changsu(413-491) the son of King Kwanggaest succeeded, during his reign brought Kogur yo to its flourishing height.In 427 King Changsu moved the Koguryo capital from P’yongyang, in this new metropolitan center other institutional arrangements now were perfected. Koguryo could be developed as prosperous as it was benefited from the military system I think. The military organization of Koguryo approximated the following: [3] First, Koguryo military system was based on a conscription system, Second, the King was the only supreme command and he alone could order the troops. It was considered treason to mobilize armed forces without the king's approval. It was not until after King Sindae's rule that a single army was divided in to central and local army.The central army had more power than the local army. The central army was stationed in the capital to play the role of protecting the king and defending the capital. Meanwhile, the local army was stationed in local areas to play the role of maintaining public security and defending the borders. The central army comp osed of two kinds of soldiers, Professional soldiers from the ruler class called the Kuk-in ( ), and the farmer soldiers mobilized by the conscription system who farmed in peace times and were mobilized as soldiers in times of war. The local army composed of three grade groups: Dae-sung, Je-sung, and Sung.Paekche, one of three kingdoms into which ancient Korea was divided before 660. occupying the southwestern tip of the Korean peninsula, Paekche is traditionally said to have been founded in 18B. C. in the Kwangiu area by a legendary leader named Onji. [4]( Onjo and his followers, who are described in historical records as having been responsible for the founding of Paekche Kingdom, were immigrants from Puyo in northeast China. They settled in the Han River valley at the borders between Mahan and Ye population at the end of the first century B. C. as described in the Annals of Paekche in Samguk Sagi(Records of the Three Kingdoms). )[5] In the mid-3rd century during the reign of King Koi, Paekche concentrated its strength in the greater part of the Han River basin in order to solidify its base as an ancient kingdom, and in the mid-4th century during the reign of Kunch'ogo, it progressed into its Golden Age. King Kunch'ogo conquered the remaining land of Mahan to the south, completely unified the Honam district (now Cholla-do) and by rising victorious over battles with Koguryo, ruled over the Hwanghae Province to the north.During this period, Paekche also made inroads into Japan and parts of China including Shandong and Liaoxi. In the mid-4th century, Koguryo suffered a great loss as a result of invasions by Former Yan and Paekche but in the latter half of the 4th century, during the reign of King Sosurim, Koguryo accepted Buddhism, established a school called T'aehak, and through the promulgation of various laws, readjusted its national structure. During the consecutive reigns of King Kwanggaet'o and King Changsu, Koguryo greatly expanded its territory and held hegemony in north-eastern Asia.Paekche, in the 5th century, confronted the southward advancement of Koguryo, lost the territory along the Han River basin and moved its capital to Ungjin (Kongju). With its power weakened, Paekche, in the 6th century under the reign of King Song, again moved its capital, this time to Sabisong (Puyo), and began readjusting its institutions in order to revive itself. King Song actively promoted cultural exchanges with the Southern Dynasties of China and introduced Buddhism to Japan. During this period, Paekche joined Silla to help control the Han River, only to lose it again to Silla.Silla evolved out of Saro, one of the twelve walled ­town states in the Chinhan area of southeastern Korea. This state of Saro took the lead in forming a confederated structure with the other walled town states in the region, and it is thought that the appearance of the first ruler from the Sok clan, King T'arhae (traditional dates 57-80 A. D. ), marks the beginning of t his gradual process. By the time of King Naemul (356 ­402), then, a rather large confederated kingdom had taken shape, control ­ling the region east of the Naktong River in modern North Kyongsang province.Through both conquest and federation, Saro now had reached the stage where it rapidly would transform itself into the kingdom of Shilla. Naemul, the central figure in this unfolding historical drama, adopted a title befitting his new position as the ruler of a kingdom. Instead of isagum (â€Å"successor prince†), the term used by his predecessors, Naemul took the title maripkan, a term based on a word meaning â€Å"ridge† or â€Å"elevation. † From this point on, the kingship no longer alternated among three royal houses but was monopolized on a hereditary basis by Naemul's Kim clan.In the course of his reign Naemul sought help from Koguryo in thwarting the designs of Paekche, which was making use of both Kaya and Japanese Wa forces to harass the fledgling Silla kingdom. This effort was successful, but it led to a slowing of the pace of Silla's development. Silla had taken the step of fixing the right to the kingship in the house of Kim in the time of King Naemul, and before long, with the reign of Nulchi(417-458), the pattern of father to son succession to the throne was established .Shortly thereafter the six clan communities were reorganized into administrative â€Å"districts†, bringing a step closer to fruition the design for centralization of governmental authority. It is not clear just when this restructuring was carried out, but it appears to have been under King Soji (479-500), that is, sometime in the latter half of the fifth century. The establishment of post stations throughout the country and the opening of markets in the capital where the products or different locales might be traded were among the consequences, no doubt, of such a centralizing thrust in Silla's governance of its domain.Meanwhile, to counter the p ressure being exerted on its frontiers by Koguryo, Silla had concluded an alliance with Paekche in 433. It was at this time , most likely, that Silla was able to fully free itself from Koguryo's influence in its internal affairs, and in the process Silla's ties with Peakche became further strengthened. The fact that Silla forged marriage ties with King Tongsong of Paekche after the transfer of the Paekche capital to Ungjin in 475 is recounted in a well-known tale, and in the ensuing years the two countries carried out joint military operations on several occasions.Having experienced these domestic and external developments, Silla finally completed the structuring of a centralized aristocratic state in the reign of King Beopheung (514-540). Under his predecessor, King Jinheung (500-514), Silla had achieved important advances in its agricultural technology, as plowing by oxen was introduced and, from about this same time, irrigation works were carried out extensively. The resulting in crease in agricultural production must have been one factor in promoting change in Silla society. In the political sphere, then, the nation's name was declared to be Silla† and the Chinese term wang (â€Å"king†) was adopted in place of the native title. These sinifications were not merely terminological changes but reflected Silla's readiness to accept China's advanced political institutions. Another significant political development of this period was the emergence of the Pak clan as the source of queens for Silla's kings. The foundation thus having been readied, an administrative structure fully characteristic of a centralized aristocratic state was created in Silla in the reign of King Beopheung.The clearest indication of this development is the promulgation of a code of administrative law in 520. Although its provisions are not known with certainty, it is believed to have included such regulations as those delineating the seventeen-grade office rank structure, pres cribing proper attire for the officialdom, and instituting the kolp ‘um (â€Å"bone-rank†) system. â€Å"This was a system that conferred or withheld a variety of special privileges, ranging from political preferment to economic advantage, in accordance with the degree of respect due a person’s bone-bank, that is, hereditary bloodline.There were two levels of so-called bone-bank itself, â€Å"hallowed-bone† and â€Å"true-bone. † The hallowed-bone status was held by those in the royal house of Kim who possessed the qualification to become king. Those of true-bone rank also were members of the Kim royal house but originally lacked qualification for the kingship. The distinction between hallowed-bone and true-bone rank within the same Silla royal house of Kim originally seems to have been made on the basis of maternal lineage, but eventually the two bone-ranks coalesced into a single true-bone rank.In addition there were six grade of â€Å"head-rank one. † Head-rank six was just below true-bone status, while head-ranks three, two, and one probably designated the common people, that is, the non-privileged general populace. †[6] The cultural development of â€Å"Three Kingdoms† When we talk about the cultural development of the Three Kingdoms, the Buddhism and Confucian come to mind easily. Buddhism and Confucian were first introduced to Korean in 4th century just the three kingdoms period. And they were not only spread widely in the three kingdoms, they had a deep influence on many aspects of the three kingdoms.The Three Kingdoms accepted Buddhism, which greatly advanced and expanded the scope of their culture, political structure and society etc. First, the kingdom of Goguryeo invited a monk from China with Chinese Buddhist texts and Buddha statues in 372 A. D. Later, Buddhism was introduced to the kingdom of Paekche from Goguryeo in 384 A. D. In the case of the above two kingdoms, the royal families first p racticed Buddhism. However, in the kingdom of Silla, the common people were attracted to Buddhism. After Lee Chadon's martyrdom, King Beopheung officially recognized Buddhism in 527 A.D. The influence of Buddhism was mentioned before; Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms flourished with the support of the royal family and the aristocrats. In this way, Buddhism became the state religion, which contributed to the national defense. Buddhism also had far-reaching affect in the art field of Three Kingdoms. For example, the Buddhist Temple, Buddhist sculpture, Buddhist mural etc. came to the fore with large numbers. â€Å"Buddhist sculpture went through a transformation of styles and influences as it passed on to the Three Kingdoms.There is a scarcity of Koguryo. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Buddhist images did appear in the form of lotus motifs and flame decorations on the walls of Koguryo tombs. The golden statues of the Maitreya shows the continued advancement of Paekche metal-working skills. There were a lso stone statues and pagodas that are a testament of Buddhist influences in Paekche. A distinction in Paekche sculptures that is local and purely Korean is the â€Å"Paekche smile† that the images possess. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Silla sculpture is noted for its variety of forms(†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), and different materials used(granite, bronze, gold, iron).The most notable Buddhist sculptures of Silla include a relief image on a cliff face with Buddhist inscriptions, and images with Korean facial characteristics. †[7] â€Å"The surviving secular art of the period consists chiefly of burial gifts taken from tombs. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦However, much pottery, along with items used for personal adornment, was uncovered in the second half of the 20th century from the less accessible Paekche and Silla tombs. The 1971 excavation of the tomb of King Munyong (died 523) and his queen in Kongju yielded many treasures, including gold crowns, silver and bronze items, and other decorative arts. †¦The most valuable pieces of Old Silla art came from huge mounded tombs in the Kyongju area. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †[8] Three Kingdoms developed a colorful and refined aristocrat-centered Buddhist culture which was eventually introduced to Japan and greatly influenced the development of its ancient culture. â€Å"Confucianism has been the main foundation of traditional thought that deeply spread its roots in Korean society. Throughout Korean history, the Korean people respected Confucian learning and attached its great significance to education. This tradition continues to the present time.There is no ancient Korean historical record about the introduction of Confucianism, but Confucianism was transmitted to Korea through continental China before the diffusion of Chinese civilization (Clark, 1981, pp. 91-94; Grayson, 1989, pp. 60-61; Yun, 1996). According to one important historical record, Samguk-saki (Historical Record of Three Kingdoms, Kim, 1145), the Three Kingdoms, Koguryo (3 7 BC-AD 668), Paekche (18 BC-AD 660), and Silla (57 BC-AD 935), were learning Chinese ideas and culture. Therefore, Chinese systems and ideas pervaded the three early states of Korea and had significant impact on Korean culture and society. [9] Through the above information, we can see that the Confucianism affected the Korean from the Three Kingdoms period. It introduced to Koguryo in 372 in first, and the first formal institution of the elite education Taehak (National Confucian Academy), built by King Sosurim of Koguryo in 372. The institution taught the Chinese letter and the Chinese classics, such as Confucian texts. Since the purpose of the institution was mainly to foster prospective government officials, the scions of the aristocratic class only could attend at the school.The same with Paekche, it have the Confucian Academy, Paekche educated the Chinese literae humaniores and produced various Confucian academic scholars, many of whom contributed much to the development of th e ancient Japanese culture. Silla accepted the Confucian at the last, the precept of fidelity of Confucian was valued by the member of the Hwarang bands, and this cohesive force was directed up-ward to bolster the authority of the throne. There were many kinds of arts and culture did a progress in the Three Kingdoms period. Such as painting, poetry and music etc. In here, I will introduce them just simply.The painting of the Three Kingdoms period often has a strongly religious character, there’re some information can prove it to a certain extent (Korea’s earliest known paintings date to the Three Kingdoms period. Vivid polychrome paintings depicting shamanistic deities, Buddhist and Daoist themes, heavenly bodies and constellations, and scenes of daily life among Koguryo aristocrats Vivid polychrome paintings depicting shamanistic deities located along the north bank of the Yalu (Korean: Amnok) River near Ji’an, China, in the area around P’yongyang to the south, and in the Anak area in Hwanghae province.Although the Koguryo custom of painting the plastered walls of tomb burial chambers spread to Paekche and Silla (as well as to Kyushu, Japan), only a few murals from these kingdoms survive. Paintings from the Three Kingdoms are mainly those from decorated tombs. The earliest dated Koguryo tomb, the Tomb of Tongsu, or Tomb No. 3, in Anak, south of P’yongyang, was built in 357. All other known tombs except for Tokhung-ni Tomb, bearing an inscription datable to 408 ce, are undated but can be roughly classified as early (4th century), middle (5th–6th century), or late (6th–7th century).The early tomb murals were portraits of the dead master and his wife, painted either on the nichelike side walls of an entrance chamber or on the back wall of the main burial chamber. The paintings were executed on the plastered stone wall with mineral pigment. The colours used were black, deep yellow, brownish red, green, and purple. The general tone of the paintings is subdued. In the middle stage, though portraits were still painted, they depicted the dead master in connection with some important event in his life, rather than seated solemnly and godlike as in the earlier period.In the Tomb of the Dancing Figures in the Tonggou region around Ji’an, the master is shown on the northern wall of the main chamber feasting with visiting Buddhist monks. A troupe of dancers is painted on the eastern wall and a hunting scene on the western one. The delicate wiry outlines of the first phase of Korean mural painting are replaced by bold, animated lines, which are quite distinct from the prevailing Chinese styles. In the hunting scene, mounted warriors shoot at fleeing tigers and deer. Lumps of striated clay are used to depict mountain ranges.Forceful brushstrokes are used to heighten the effect of motion of the galloping horses and fleeing game. This sense of dynamism is characteristic of Koguryo painting reflecti ng the brave spirits of its people. In the third and final stage of Koguryo mural art, the technique of mural painting was improved and imagery refined under the influence of Chinese painting. Lines flow and colours are intensified. Genre paintings of preceding stages disappeared, and the Four Deities of the cardinal compass points now occupied the four walls, a concept derived from Daoist religious art of the Six Dynasties period.Dating probably from the first half of the 7th century, the paintings of the Three Tombs at Uhyon-ni, near P’yongyang, and of the Tomb of the Four Deities in Ji’an are the best examples from the final phase of Koguryo fresco painting. Tomb painting spread to Paekche, where two examples of tomb wall painting can be found, the tombs of Songsan-ni in Kongju and of Nungsan-ni in Puyo. In addition, a pillow from the tomb of King Munyong (501–523), in Kongju, features fish and dragons and lotus flowers painted in flowing exquisite lines in i nk against a red background.In the greater Silla area, one decorated tomb at Koryong in the former Kaya territory and two tombs discovered in the 1980s at Yongju have survived, but the paintings in all three are badly damaged. The best example of painting from the Old Silla period is found on a saddle mudguard made of multi-ply birch bark discovered in the Tomb of the Heavenly Horse in Kyongju in 1973; the mudguard depicts a galloping white horse surrounded by a band of honeysuckle design. ) And the same with poetry and music, they also has a strongly religious character. I think this could occur in the introduced of Buddhism.Most of poetry and music were teach by Buddhist monks or created by Buddhist monks. So we can see that the â€Å"flourishing of Buddhism both enriched the intellectual content of Three Kingdoms art and introduced markedly advanced artistic techniques, and in consequence works began to appear in which a more refined sense of beauty and harmony can be discerned. †[11] Conclusion: Through searched amount of materials and sorted out them to be the existing writings,I finally finished the paper—The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms†.I have to say that it is a painstaking process, but I’m very gratified to find that I have in-depth understanding how the Three Kingdoms was. Of course, I just discoursed little aspect of it. Even then, I got some thoughts in my mind. According to my paper, each of the three kingdoms had rigid social status system. I supposed that the three kingdoms contained each other all the time. They form an alliance at times, but just for its own national interests. So they would launch war to defend their national interests. The three kingdoms had a complex relationship with China.One hand, they didn’t want be controlled by China, another hand, they wanted to absorb the Chinese culture what can improve theirs’ comprehensive national strength. The transmissio n of Buddhism and Confucian shows the importance of learn advance culture. The advanced culture can promote the development of the construction of the political and economic, moreover, it is benefit to the growth of arts and culture. Chinese saying goes â€Å"taking history as a mirror†, in my opinion, it’s doesn’t work when you learn to some other country’s history.When we learning foreign history we will take better understanding of what do they thinking, why do they do things like that†¦ I think it’s a wonderful way to promote exchanges between the countries of the world. Bibliography: [1]Encyclopedia of World History, Vol I, P464 Three Kingdoms, Korea, Edited by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, Mark F. Whitters. [2] http://blog. daum. net/cor1007/8743772 [3] ? / [4] http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/438085/Paekche [5] by [6]? Korea old and new a history?Ch. 3. Aristocratic So cieties Under Monarchical Rule_ Political and Social Structure of the Three Kingdoms p32~p33 [7] http://scienceview. berkeley. edu/VI/index. html [8]http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/719289/Korean-art/283332/Three-Kingdoms-period-c-57-bce-668-ce [9]Radical Pedagogy (2001) ISSN: 1524-6345 Jeong-Kyu Lee, Ph. D. Division of Educational Policy Research Korean Educational Development Institute/Hongik University [10] ? Korea old and new a history? Ch. 3. Aristocratic Societies Under Monarchical Rule_ Political and Social Structure of the Three Kingdoms p39